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Political & Military Events concerning Italy - 1871-1914 By 1914, many factors - industrialisation, nationalism, military and naval rivalry, colonialism - combined to prepare the nations of Europe, and those further afield for war. The inter-relationships of these factors are complex and even now somewhat uncertain. What is certain is that the assassination of an Austrian Archduke by a Serbian-inspired student in June 1914 led to World War. The first major event of this period influencing events in Italy took place in 1870: 1870 - Rise of Italy - The French garrison of Rome withdrew during the Franco-Prussian War. The city was seized by Italian forces and the unification of Italy accomplished with Rome as capital. 1878 - Break-up of the Ottoman or Turkish Empire in Europe - Following the independence of Greece in 1832, the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire continued after the 1877/78 Russo-Turkish War with the Congress of Berlin. Montenegro, Serbia (both part of the old southern Yugoslavia) and Rumania were made independent. A 'small' Bulgaria also became independent, but the remainder stayed Turkish. Bosnia-Herzegovina (also part of the old Yugoslavia) was administered by Austria while remaining in the Ottoman Empire. Britain gained Cyprus. Russia and Austria continued their rivalry for power in the Balkans. 1879 - Dual Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary - Reached between Germany and Austria-Hungary against possible attack by Russia. 1882 - Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy - Against the threat of French attack, Italy joined the three year old German-Austrian Alliance to form the Triple Alliance. Chancellor Bismarck thus continued his policy of isolating France. Rumania also joined the Alliance. 1894 - Dual Entente of Russia and France - Russia, concerned about relations with Austria over the Balkans, turned to France in a formal alliance against attack by Germany, Austria's partner in the Triple Alliance. 1901 - Anglo-German Relationships. The two countries continued alliance negotiations, which could have led to Britain becoming a member of the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Germany continued to prolong discussions, even at the risk of driving Britain into the Dual Entente of France and Russia, but they finally broke down over the Boer War. 1904 - 'Entente Cordiale' of France and Britain - Out of fear of Germany, Britain and France settled a number of differences (including France exchanging her interests in Egypt for a free hand in Morocco), and entered into an informal alliance. Although not a military pact, the two countries later consulted on both military and naval matters right up to the outbreak of the Great War. 1907 - Triple Entente of Russia, France and Britain - Britain and Russia settled a number of differences in Asia. Then with both countries concerned about Germany, but friendly with France, the 1894 Dual Entente and the 1904 'Entente Cordiale' became the Triple Entente of Russia, France and Britain. 1911-12 - Italian-Turkish War - Italy defeated Turkey and took the Dodecanese Islands in the Aegean and Tripoli/Libya in North Africa. All of North Africa was now in European hands, and the European powers had completed the partition of Africa. Only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent. 1914 - By now the international tensions were many and complex.
FINAL STEPS, Summer 1914 Following the assassination of Austrian Archduke Ferdinand in June 1914, seven European nations went to war between late July and early August 1914: The Central Powers of Austria-Hungary and Germany (the Triple Alliance less Italy and Rumania); and The Allies of the Triple Entente (Russia, France and Britain and their Empires) in defence of Serbia and Belgium. June 1914 28th - Archduke Franz Ferdinand, nephew of Emperor Franz Josef of Austria-Hungary and heir to the throne, and his wife, were visiting Sarajevo, capital of annexed Bosnia-Herzogovina. Both were shot and killed by student Gavrilo Princip, member of a Serbian secret society. July 1914 23rd - Austria, threatened by Russian support for Serbia, but now assured of German backing, sent an ultimatum demanding that Serbia suppress all anti-Austrian activities. 25th - Serbia ordered mobilisation, but also agreed to meet most of Austria's demands. 28th - Austria declared war on Serbia, and next day bombarded Belgrade the Serbian capital. Austrian forces were not yet ready to invade. 30th - Russia, committed to the defence of Serbia, finally decided on general mobilisation. 31st - Austria announced general mobilisation. Germany insisted Russia halt mobilisation and demanded to know if France would remain neutral if Germany went to war with Russia. August 1914 1st - France mobilised. Germany also ordered mobilisation and declared war on Russia (the German Schlieffen Plan required France to be defeated in battle before Russia could be attacked, thus making war with France inevitable). Italy announced neutrality. 2nd - Germany invaded Luxembourg early on the 2nd and sent a note to Belgium demanding free passage of troops through Belgium territory for the attack on France. Britain assured France that the British Fleet would protect the French coast and shipping from German attack. 3rd - Belgium refused German demands, and the King of the Belgians appealed for the preservation of Belgian neutrality. Germany declared war on France. 4th - Britain protested against German violation of Belgian territory. Invading Belgium early on the 4th, Germany declared war on Belgium. British mobilisation was ordered; Britain went to war with Germany from midnight on the 4th. 6th - Austria finally declared war on Russia. 10th and 12th - France and Britain declared war on Austria-Hungary. ITALY & THE WORLD AT WAR, 1914-18 Western Allies - Great Britain and Ireland, France, Belgium, Luxembourg. joined by Italy in May 1915, Portugal in March 1916 and Greece in June 1917; Eastern Allies - Russia and Serbia. Joined by Montenegro and Albania in January 1916, and Rumania in August 1916; Central Powers - Germany and Austro-Hungary. Joined by Turkey in November 1914, and Bulgaria in October 1915 |
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STARTING EVENTS While much of Europe goes to war in accordance with treaty obligations, Italy does not side with Austria and remains neutral for now.
The main Italian Fleet in August 1914, based at Taranto under Vice Adm HRH Luigi di Savoia, Duke of Abbruzzi, includes most of the major warships -
Other vessels are based in Albanian, Aegean and Libyan waters. When war is declared in May 1915, the Navy's first task is to join with the French in the blockade of the Austrians. Not content with this passive role, together with defending the flat Italian Adriatic coastline and supporting the land campaign in the northern reaches of the Adriatic, the Italians come to specialise in unconventional warfare with M.A.S.-type motor torpedo boats, caterpillar-tracked climbing boats, and frogmen. In doing so, they sink two out of the four Austrian dreadnoughts and one coast defence battleship. |
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1914 AUGUST 1914 Escape of the German "Goeben" and "Breslau" - Italy's only direct involvement in this embarrassing Allied failure is when the two German ships coal at Messina on the northeast coast of Sicily. First on the 3rd before Britain's declaration of war, and then on the 5th from a German collier as the Allies hunt for them. SEPTEMBER 1914 OCTOBER/NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1914 1915 JANUARY/FEBRUARY/MARCH/APRIL 1915 MAY 1915 Italy Declares War on Austria-Hungary - On the 23rd, Italy turns against her former allies, but at this time only declares war on Austria-Hungary, partly to gain territory. (War is not declared on Germany until August 1916). The Italian Army of nearly 900,000 men organised into 36 divisions and under the command of Gen Luigi Cadorna, Chief of the Italian General Staff, is poorly equipped but outnumbers the Austrians on this front. The frontier between Austria and Italy stretches nearly 300 miles from Switzerland to the Adriatic in the shape of a large "S" on its side, and consists of almost impassable mountains, well fortified by the Austrians. Starting at the Swiss border is the Austrian enclave of Trentino which pushes right down into northern Italy with the Austrians on the heights, and the Italians down below in the Po Valley where their main railway lines are situated. To the east of the Trentino are the high Carnic Alps, and then the Isonzo River running north to south through Gorizia to the Carso Plateau and the sea at the Gulf of Trieste. Beyond the Isonzo is the Ljubljana Gap, the only gateway into Austria-Hungary, and the Italians main objective. Even this means battling uphill, with the ever-present threat of the Austrians in the Trentino behind them, breaking out and cutting the Italian supply lines.
As Italy enters the war, so the first of the two "Doria" class battleships (13-30.5cm or 12in), "Duilio", is completed, with "Andrea Doria" following in 1916. With the recently commisioned "Conte di Cavour", Italy now has a total of five dreadnoughts compared to the three in August 1914. The situation in the Adriatic leads to raids by both sides, the Austrians mounting theirs from heavily-defended, deep water bases such as Pola and Cattaro, shelling the long Italian coastline. The Italians strike back, and are reinforced by the French "Armée Navale", based at Brindisi and the Greek island of Corfu, together with British units. Neither side manages to control the Adriatic in 1915, but the Allied blockade keeps the Austrians from playing any part in the Mediterranean, and in turn, allows them to evacuate the Serbians. JUNE 1915 Italy - By the time the Italians are ready for the first of some eleven Battles of the Isonzo River, the Austrians have 20 divisions ready on the front under the command of Archduke Eugen. In the First Battle of the Isonzo which lasts from 23 June to 7 July, the Italians attack towards Gorizia, but make only limited progress. Meanwhile in the Trentino and the Alps, they launch a number of minor assaults to improve their positions. JULY 1915 Italy - Ten days after the end of the First Battle, the Second Battle of the Isonzo starts and runs on into August or September, depending on accounts. Little progress is made by the Italians. AUGUST/SEPTEMBER 1915 OCTOBER 1915 Italy - The Third Battle of the Isonzo, really a continuation of the earlier one, starts in mid-month with the struggle carrying on into November. NOVEMBER 1915 Italy - The Third Battle of Isonzo ends in early November. The Fourth Battle soon starts and continues through to December. DECEMBER 1915 1916 JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1916 MARCH 1916 Italy - As part of the Allied strategy to hold down Austrian forces, Gen Cadorna launches the Fifth Battle of the Isonzo early in the month. By month's end it has petered out with few gains. APRIL 1916 MAY 1916 Italy - On the 15th, the Austrians, against German advice, launch an offensive into northern Italy from the Trentino bulge. In the Battle of Asiago, Austrian Gen Conrad is successful at first, having transferred some of his best divisions and 2,000 guns from the Russian front. However, aware of these preparations, Italian Gen Cadorna has moved troops into the area following the end of the Fifth Battle of Isonzo. Austrian Archduke Eugen's Eleventh and Third Armies attack south near Asiago in the mountains, and drive a five miles wedge into the Italians, taking thousands of prisoners. As the Italians withdraw, the Austrians are worn down and brought to a halt. JUNE 1916 Italy - By the 10th in the Battle of Asiago, the Austrians have gained 12 miles in one sector, but the attack is brought to an end as the Brusilov Offensive starts on the Russian front. Italian Gen Cadorna begins his counter-offensive, and by months-end, the Austrians have lost nearly all their earlier gains. At a minimum, Italian casualties are 150,000, and Austrian, a further 100,000. JULY 1916 AUGUST 1916 Italy declares war on Germany on the 27th - With Italian forces now back to the Isonzo sector, the Sixth Battle of Isonzo or the Battle of Gorizia starts on the 6th/7th. With a three to one superiority, Gen Cadorna advances and captures the city of Gorizia on the 9th, the first real success of the numerous Isonzo battles. He also makes limited gains on the Carso Plateau. SEPTEMBER 1916 Italy - The Italians attack the Austrians in the Seventh Battle of the Isonzo, concentrating on the Carso Plateau region. OCTOBER 1916 Italy - Still concentrating on the Carso Plateau region, the Italians fight the Eighth Battle of the Isonzo. NOVEMBER 1916 Italy - Now the Ninth Battle of the Isonzo takes place, with the main effort still in the Carso Plateau region. As usual, the Italians make small gains in exchange for heavy casualties on both sides. DECEMBER 1916 1917 JANUARY/FEBRUARY/MARCH/APRIL 1917 to be continued |
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